| IntroductionWith increased globalization people have | | | | infrastructure supporting the nurturing of innovation and |
| seen the need to increase wealth creation especially | | | | making skills. These involve designing, innovating, |
| within the underdeveloped Third World. It has also | | | | communicating in groups, problem solving, face-to-face |
| become evident that neither the government nor the | | | | communication, idea generation and group-work (Ali, |
| formal sector can supply the necessary job creation | | | | 2001:41). Brown and Duguid (1991) quoted by Ali |
| without a sustained effort and partnerships between all | | | | (2001:342) make use of the expression "communities |
| sectors of the economy. One means of creating work | | | | of practice" to describe the social context for |
| opportunities will be the development of entrepreneurial | | | | developing work, learning and innovation. Lin, Li and |
| and innovative skills within the country. The creation of | | | | Chen (2004:4) and Markman and Baron (2003:291) |
| such job opportunities by encouraging entrepreneurial | | | | make use of the term "social capital" to describe the |
| innovation has been well illustrated by Dana, Korot and | | | | ability to establish networks of supporting relationships. |
| Tovstiga (2005:12) in Silicon Valley, Israel, Singapore | | | | This ability is seen as a means of mobilizing |
| and the Netherlands. These authors report that in the | | | | environmental resources to overcome obstacles and |
| narrow 35 mile by 10 mile corridor within Silicon Valley | | | | threats within the entrepreneurial process. Others have |
| 6,500 technology enterprises are located. Singapore is | | | | noted how important social capital is in the creation of |
| home to almost 100,000 entrepreneurs and had a per | | | | new business ventures. Lin, et al. (2004:4) recognize |
| capita GDP of US$42,948.00 during 2004 and an | | | | the need for formal and informal funding relationships |
| annual growth rate of 8.8% (Singapore Statistics, | | | | within the business environment. Such entrepreneurs |
| 2006).In addition higher education has become a prime | | | | are termed "business angels" for they gain access to |
| export commodity of total world services trade, | | | | required resources, such as capital investors, suitable |
| amounting to a staggering 3% (Grundling & Steynberg, | | | | distributors and talented employees from the external |
| 2006:5). With the increased interest in entrepreneurial | | | | environment. Lin, et al. (2004:6) thus regard social |
| innovation as an economic driver there is a need to | | | | capital as "entrepreneurial social infrastructure". Harris, |
| develop expertise within this area. Thus there is a | | | | Forbes and Fletcher (2000:125-126) suggest that |
| need to develop entrepreneurial innovation knowledge | | | | planning "dampens" the entrepreneurial spirit and that |
| within higher education institutions to ensure the | | | | emergent problems tended to be better training |
| maintenance of a competitive edge in an under | | | | triggers than planned approaches. It is proposed that |
| developed market. Dana, et al. (2005:10) define | | | | the learning style for entrepreneurs should be one |
| knowledge as "the integration of information, ideas, | | | | using facilitators, learning by doing, interactive |
| experience, intuition, skills and lessons learned that | | | | classroom approaches, peer group work, problem |
| creates added value for a firm". In addition Dana et el. | | | | solving, grasping opportunities and holistic approaches. It |
| (2005) define innovation as "the process by which | | | | is recommended that inputs should be made by |
| knowledge is transformed into new or significantly | | | | outside speakers and entrepreneurs (Harris, et al., |
| modified products and/or services that establish the | | | | 2000:126). Johnson (1987:31, in Harris et al., 2000) states |
| firm's competitive edge". It can thus be seen that it is | | | | that an entrepreneur's planned approach to any |
| imperative that higher education in South Africa | | | | problem should be problem awareness, problem |
| actively pursue a policy to encourage entrepreneurial | | | | diagnosis, the development of solutions and the |
| innovation to ensure the creation of expertise, the | | | | selection of a solution. Once again the need for "an |
| development of new industries and the empowering of | | | | emergent" approach rather than a "planned approach" |
| students to establish themselves within an | | | | is emphasized. In addition, Harris, et al. (2000:133) |
| entrepreneurial innovative culture. Higher education will | | | | emphasize the need for long standing close |
| be required to become a key player in domesticating | | | | relationships in the development of the entrepreneur. |
| knowledge and diffusing it into the economy in order to | | | | Such partners can share vision, and serve as sounding |
| serve as engines for community development and | | | | boards for ideas and concerns. These relationships are |
| social renewal (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6).Problem | | | | vital for the development of innovative thinking. The |
| statementThe research question under discussion is | | | | findings suggest that entrepreneurs must be trained in |
| formulated as What minimum requirements should be | | | | a less structured way, which involve group work, class |
| set in an entrepreneurial and innovation framework in | | | | discussions, specialist input, a concentration of social |
| order to support entrepreneurial and innovation | | | | skills, communicating and conflict management. The |
| knowledge creation at institutions of higher | | | | methodology must involve face to face contact and |
| education?PurposeThis article attempts to develop a | | | | the developing of lasting relationships.Another factor |
| framework to encourage entrepreneurial thinking within | | | | that should be written into the curriculum is the ability to |
| a higher education environment, taking into account | | | | deal with problems that arise and then to reschedule |
| consideration policy and infrastructural requirements, | | | | goals so as to accommodate the new situation. This is |
| knowledge creation fundamentals and institutional | | | | clearly illustrated by Ireland, Kuratko and Morris |
| arrangements.Policy interventionPolicy initiatives within | | | | (2006:12) showing the presence of internal and |
| higher education institutions are essential to establish | | | | external triggers of corporate entrepreneurship. |
| guidance for entrepreneurs, funding agencies, industry, | | | | External triggers that encourage entrepreneurship arise |
| labour in general and for students and institutions of | | | | from developments in the external environment. These |
| higher education in particular. From a higher education | | | | include diminishing opportunities, rapid changes in |
| perspective government as well as institutional policy | | | | technology, labour shortages, aggressive moves by |
| requirements will be discussed in | | | | competitors, change in the market structure or |
| brief.·Government policiesIf this is to be | | | | regulatory threats. Internal triggers include employee |
| accomplished it will require government intervention to | | | | rewards, directives from managers, tension between |
| construct policies which should include the reduction of | | | | staff, problems with cost control, etc. Ireland, et al. |
| taxation in the form of capital gains tax rate, providing | | | | (2006:12). Triggers for entrepreneurship may be |
| incentives for increased spending on research and | | | | summed up in the statement "necessity is the mother |
| development, encouraging active venture capital | | | | of invention". This once again emphasis the need for |
| markets, an alteration of the 'hiring and firing' labour | | | | trainers to concentrate on the entrepreneurial process |
| regulations, and encouraging the spending on new | | | | rather than the content, with particular emphasis on |
| technology shares (Da Rin, Nicodano & Sembenelli, | | | | change, the unexpected and resolving problems that |
| 2005:8).·The higher education institution policiesThe | | | | emerge within any particular process.Markman and |
| higher education institution must provide a working | | | | Baron (2003:288) regard self-efficacy as an important |
| atmosphere in which entrepreneurship can thrive. | | | | success factor in developing entrepreneurs. |
| Venkataraman (2003:154) proposes that it is not | | | | Self-efficacy is defined as "the extent to which |
| merely the injection of capital that enhances the | | | | persons believe that they can organize effectively, |
| development of entrepreneurship. Rather, it is the | | | | execute actions to produce given attainments" |
| tangible infrastructural essentials such as capital | | | | (Bandura, 1997 quoted by Markman and Baron |
| markets, advanced telecommunications, sound legal | | | | 2003:288). Successful entrepreneurs will have high |
| and transportation systems. In addition, intangible | | | | self-efficacy and tend to believe that their actions will |
| components must be in place. These intangibles are | | | | lead to a successful venture. It is also suggested that |
| access to novel ideas, informal forums, role models, | | | | entrepreneurs need to recognize opportunities from |
| region specific opportunities, access to large markets, | | | | possible businesses. In addition it is suggested that |
| safety nets and executive leadership. As policy within | | | | entrepreneurs need perseverance and need to be |
| the institution is developed it must consider and include | | | | able to overcome adversity and uncertainty. The |
| a planning process to accommodate these | | | | curriculum should thus contain training on self esteem, |
| essentials.Policy must also augment the entrepreneurial | | | | reliability, perseverance, overcoming setbacks, having a |
| culture within the higher education institution as a new | | | | vision, setting goals and rescheduling if things go |
| mindset of students must be established from one of | | | | wrong.Boussouara and Deakins (1999:204) suggest |
| expecting to be employed, to one of providing work | | | | that a gradual approach into a high technology |
| opportunities for others. Technology licensing offices | | | | business can be an advantage in that it allows time to |
| (TLOs) must be established at the higher education | | | | develop contacts, strategy, and networks as well as |
| institutions. Stanford University sponsored research | | | | gives time to acquire funding and income. The latter |
| expenditures of US$391 million generated 25 TLO start | | | | authors emphasize the need to acquire market-based |
| ups in 1997 (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:209). An | | | | knowledge for a successful business (Boussouara & |
| investment in patent rights by the higher education | | | | Deakins, 1999:205). It is thus recommended that |
| institutions will ensure future capital investments into the | | | | networks and external business agents present |
| institution. Intellectual property (IP) policies should be | | | | relevant market research to the trainees. These |
| framed so as to capture the wealth generated and to | | | | findings should be brainstormed and shared in the |
| distribute it equitably between investors, partners, the | | | | larger group.ConclusionIn this article an attempt has |
| university and the entrepreneur. Such rewards will | | | | been made to develop a framework for the |
| generate future interest for both the investors and the | | | | development of entrepreneurial thinking within a higher |
| entrepreneurs. Policies, procedures and network | | | | education environment. This framework needs to be |
| contacts to capture venture capital must be | | | | supported by government policy initiatives and include |
| established.Research and Development policies in | | | | taxation incentives for entrepreneurs, encouraging |
| entrepreneurship must be refined and focused. | | | | investment in research and development, incentives for |
| Currently, the focus of entrepreneurial research at | | | | industry for active venture capital and alterations to the |
| Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa | | | | labour law to accommodate small entrepreneurial |
| falls within the three niche areas of business clustering, | | | | industries. In addition techno-parks should be developed |
| business development and management of innovation. | | | | in conjunction with government to expose students to |
| In each of these niche areas it will be necessary to | | | | the entrepreneurial culture.Research should be done |
| develop Masters and Doctorate programmes in | | | | within the business development niche area to |
| entrepreneurship and innovation. This in turn will mean a | | | | investigate these policies and communicate the needs |
| need for the improvement of the staff qualification | | | | to government. If government officials are participating |
| profile within these areas. Along with the Masters and | | | | in the knowledge node it might provide the necessary |
| Doctorate programmes, accredited research outputs | | | | exposure to government.Policy initiatives from within |
| must be produced in entrepreneurship and innovation | | | | the higher education institution should establish the |
| (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6). In addition to the | | | | knowledge node which should include academic |
| Masters degrees in Entrepreneurship and the Masters | | | | specialists, research foundations, relevant government |
| degree in Comparative Local Development, a Masters | | | | officials, industrial partners, specialists from industry, |
| degree in Cognitive Reasoning should be considered | | | | foreign investors, community forums, labour unions, |
| for the future. Such a course should include a thorough | | | | funding agencies, students and potential entrepreneurs. |
| foundation in finance reasoning along with creative | | | | Information networks connecting entrepreneurs to |
| thinking and business planning.Institutional structures to | | | | venture capitalists should be established within this |
| be establishedThe higher education institution will have | | | | knowledge node. Intellectual Property policies should be |
| to establish itself as a seamless knowledge node into | | | | developed by the business development niche area to |
| which a variety of parties can contribute. Parties | | | | ensure that possible TLO start-ups within the higher |
| contributing to such a knowledge node might include | | | | education institution are protected and that patenting, |
| industrial partners, specialists from industry, relevant | | | | marketing or other up-front costs are paid by the |
| government agencies, foreign investors, community | | | | higher education institution or associated enterprises. |
| forums, labour unions, academic specialists, research | | | | The higher education institution could liaise with the |
| foundations, funding agencies, students and potential | | | | Innovation Hub established in conjunction with the CSIR. |
| entrepreneurs. Such a node would provide the | | | | A cooperation agreement could benefit both parties. |
| necessary contact between entrepreneurs, funding | | | | Research should be carried out by the business |
| agencies, industry and labour. This will ensure exposure | | | | clustering niche area to select the most appropriate |
| of research and innovative ideas to the relevant | | | | combinations and networking within the knowledge |
| parties. It would also provide a relevant export/import | | | | node.To ensure intellectual eminence the correct |
| platform for entrepreneurship within the country. In | | | | researchers, academics and industrialists should be |
| addition to this, regular colloquia should be held to allow | | | | chosen within the entrepreneurship cluster. Incubators |
| potential entrepreneurs to expose their innovative | | | | and TLOs should be founded to "ripen' developing |
| ideas to the funding agencies. An information network | | | | technologies and to form small innovative industries. |
| connecting entrepreneurs to venture capitalists should | | | | Research within this area could be done by the niche |
| be established within this knowledge node.Such forums | | | | areas business development and management of |
| would allow industrial partners to present | | | | innovation.A funding agency for the entrepreneurship |
| commercially-oriented research proposals to the higher | | | | innovation (previously termed the institutional |
| education institution which funding agencies in turn | | | | foundation) could be located close to the industry |
| would be willing to fund. Gregorio and Shane (2003:212) | | | | partners for fundraising. All three niche areas should be |
| also emphasize the need for the higher education | | | | actively networked with industries on an ongoing basis, |
| institution to demonstrate intellectual eminence. It is | | | | communicating needs and proposals.A teaching |
| suggested that better quality researchers are more | | | | strategy should be developed to foster tacit |
| likely to exploit inventions than lesser qualified | | | | knowledge development. Group work, problem solving, |
| researchers. The intellectual eminence also makes it | | | | idea generation, innovating, designing and face to face |
| easier for researchers involved to start enterprises | | | | communication should be extensively used. Smaller |
| and to exploit their inventions (Gregorio & Shane, | | | | classrooms need to be utilized allowing for group work. |
| 2003:212). In addition, more eminent researchers | | | | Curricula should include topics like self efficacy, |
| provide a better knowledge base and this in turn will | | | | perseverance and the need to overcome adversity. In |
| attract better qualified researchers and students. To | | | | addition market-based knowledge should be presented |
| ensure an intellectual eminence of their outputs, higher | | | | by specialists from the industry on an ongoing basis. |
| education institutions should select students | | | | Networking should be a normal part of the curriculum |
| carefully.The higher education institution should also | | | | and will allow venture capitalists to be connected to |
| encourage the development of incubators, either close | | | | the innovations developed within the knowledge node.If |
| to the institution or close to the involved industry. This | | | | South Africa and institutions of higher education do not |
| will certainly influence the start up capital expenditure. | | | | see the need to develop entrepreneurship within all |
| Gregorio and Shane (2003:213) suggest that such | | | | communities, people may be delegated to a life of |
| incubators would allow entrepreneurs to "ripen" | | | | poverty, with no opportunity to work or to develop |
| technologies in close proximity to inventors and | | | | South Africa's rich natural resources for future |
| specialists.The establishment of technology parks could | | | | generations.ReferencesALI, Y. 2001. The intranet and |
| be instituted at the institution. Dana, et al. (2005:12) | | | | the management of making and using skills. Journal of |
| report that the first technology parks were established | | | | Knowledge Management, 5(4):338-348.BANDURA, A. |
| in the Netherlands. It is hardly surprising that the | | | | 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: |
| Netherlands is one of the leading nations in promoting | | | | W.H. Freeman & Co.BOUSSOUARA, M. & DEAKINS, |
| entrepreneurship, comparing favourably with Israel, | | | | D. 1999. Market-based learning, entrepreneurship and |
| Singapore and Silicone Valley. Perhaps such parks | | | | the high technology small firm. International Journal of |
| could be established in conjunction with the | | | | Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research. |
| government and serve to expose students to the | | | | 5(4):204-223.BROWN, J.S. & DUGUID, P. 1991. |
| entrepreneurial culture.Information networks connecting | | | | Organisational learning and community-of-practice; |
| entrepreneurs to venture capitalists should be | | | | towards a unified view of working, learning and |
| established within the higher education institution. | | | | innovation. Organization Science, 2(1):40-57.DANA, L-P., |
| Dushnitsky and Lenox (2004:618) reinforce this view. | | | | KOROT, L. & TOVSTIGA, G. 2005. A cross-national |
| Gregorio and Shane (2003:214) also recommend that | | | | comparison of knowledge management practices. |
| in exchange for taking an equity stake in TLO | | | | International Journal of Manpower, 26(1):10-22.DA RIN, |
| start-ups the institution should pay patenting, marketing | | | | M., NICODANO, G. & SEMBENELLI A. 2005. Public |
| or other up-front costs. These measures would | | | | policy and the creation of active venture capital |
| encourage the formation of start-up enterprises. | | | | markets. Journal of Public Economics. Article in |
| Furthermore, locating a higher education institutional | | | | press.DUSHNITSKY, G. & LENOX, M.J. 2005. When do |
| foundation presence in physical proximity to the | | | | incumbents learn from entrepreneurial ventures? |
| enterprises donating the capital might be an advantage | | | | Corporate venture capital and investing firm innovation |
| (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:211).Strategy to develop an | | | | rates. Research Policy, 34:615-639.GREGORIO, D.D. & |
| entrepreneurial innovative culture·Re-curriculation | | | | SHANE, S. 2003. Why do some universities generate |
| of syllabi within Entrepreneurship programmesWhen | | | | more start-ups than others? Research Policy, |
| training entrepreneurs two realms of knowledge should | | | | 32:209-227.GRUNDLING, J.P. & STEYNBERG, L. 2006. |
| be recognized, "tacit" and "explicit". "Explicit knowledge | | | | MTech Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial Techniques |
| is easily identifiable, easy to articulate, capture and | | | | VA. Pretoria: Centre for Entrepreneurship, Tshwane |
| share. By contrast, tacit knowledge consists | | | | University of Technology.HARRIS, S., FORBES, T & |
| predominately of intuition, feelings, perceptions and | | | | FLETCHER, M. 2000. Taught and enacted strategic |
| beliefs, often difficult to express and therefore difficult | | | | approaches in young enterprises. International Journal |
| to capture and transfer. Of the two, tacit knowledge | | | | of Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research, |
| carries the greater value in that it is the essence of | | | | 6(3):125-145.IRELAND, R.D., KURATKO, D.F. & AND |
| innovation" (Dana et al., 2005:10). Perhaps an illustration | | | | MORRIS, M.H. 2006. A health audit for corporate |
| given by Ali (2001:339) serves to illustrate the | | | | entrepreneurship: Innovation at all levels. Part 1. Journal |
| difference between the skills involved in producing an | | | | of Business Strategy, 27(1):10-17.JOHNSON, J.M.G. 1987. |
| artifact. The engineer is a man of action developing | | | | Entrepreneurial intentions and outcomes: A |
| mental skills but seldom having the opportunity to | | | | comparative causal mapping study. Journal of |
| develop manual skills. The craftsman uses his hands | | | | Management Studies, 34(6):895-920.LIN, B-W., LI, P-C. |
| more than his head, tools more than instruments and | | | | & CHEN, J.S. 2004. Social capital. Capabilities, and |
| rarely uses science or mathematics. Both are geared | | | | entrepreneurial strategies: A study of Taiwanese |
| towards inventing. The engineer is concerned with | | | | high-tech new ventures. Technological Forecasting and |
| ideas and artifacts, while the craftsman is concerned | | | | social change. Article in press.MARKMAN, G.D. & |
| with the making of artefacts. The craftsman has no | | | | BARON, R.A. 2003. Person-entrepreneurship fit: Why |
| ready made methods and the technique is devised | | | | some people are more successful as entrepreneurs |
| during the process. The engineer draws mainly on | | | | than others. Human Resource Management Review, |
| explicit scientific skills while the craftsman draws on | | | | 13:281-301.SINGAPORE STATISTICS. 2006. www/ |
| intuitive, tacit knowledge. This person is involved in the | | | | singstat.gov.sg/keystats/annual/indicators.html# |
| creation of something new, an innovative skill. The | | | | economic%20indicators Accessed on 28/01 |
| engineer's plans and blueprints might well involve tactic | | | | 06.VENKATARAMAN, S. 2003. Regional |
| knowledge.In curriculum design one must recognize the | | | | transformation through technological entrepreneurship. |
| difference between infrastructure supporting recursive | | | | Journal of Business Venturing. 19:153-167. |
| skills which are typically routine in nature and | | | | |